The Hashtag Revolution: How Protest Movements Have Adapted to the Digital Age

"The revolution will not be televised, but it will be tweeted."

On September 16, 2022, the world was shaken by the death of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old Kurdish-Iranian woman who was arrested by Iran’s morality police for allegedly wearing her hijab improperly. Just days after her arrest, she died in police custody. Her death would become the catalyst for a movement that would spread far beyond Iran, demonstrating just how much protest movements have evolved in the digital age. 

Within hours of Amini’s death, the internet erupted with outrage. The hashtag #MahsaAmini trended worldwide. In comparison to earlier protest movements that were covered traditionally in the media, protestors turned to digital platforms to share their message quickly and instantly. The phrase “Woman, Life, Freedom,” drawn from Kurdish feminist movements, appeared as a unifying cry that spread around the world.

This digital uprising illustrated how online activism complements traditional protests. Social media platforms became a battlefield where activists bypassed state media to document abuse and rally support. Despite the Iranian government’s efforts to suppress information by restricting internet access and blocking platforms like Instagram and WhatsApp, activists found ways to bypass censorship using VPNs and encrypted messaging apps. The world was exposed to reality in Iran after videos of women burning their headscarves and enduring violent crackdowns went viral. 

The impact of online activism extended beyond Iran. Online, human rights organizations, politicians, and celebrities demonstrated their support for the cause. The hashtag #MahsaAmini was used over 300 million times on Twitter alone, demonstrating the sheer scale of digital engagement. Protests erupted in cities from Los Angeles to Berlin, with protestors carrying Amini’s image and chanting for freedom.

The protests in Iran are far from an isolated example of the way social media has changed protest movements in the past few years. Across the world, social media has played a critical role in shaping politics and influencing public opinion. Over the past few years, governments have become increasingly aware of the power that digital platforms hold when it comes to shaping public opinion. An evident example of this is during 2016 presidential elections in the United States, specifically Donald Trump's presidential campaign. Allegations of interference during the election by Russia and the role of companies like Cambridge Analytica and Meta revealed how easy it is for social media to manipulate and sway public opinion. More recently, the U.S. government's attempts to control TikTok under the pretext of national security has raised doubts over whether the motivation behind this is truly about data privacy or just a strategic move to control a foreign-owned platform which could sometimes be used to affect American public opinion and bring social unrest by a perceived enemy. 

In some cases, governments do not just suppress the use of social media during protests or social movements, but actively use it to shape public opinion. India presents a prime example of how political parties leverage social media platforms to their advantage, especially when it comes to promoting propaganda and censoring views that may not align with their own. Under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, there has been an extreme rise in Hindutva - Hindu nationalism, with growing violence towards Muslims and Sikhs. The current ruling party, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), has been accused of using social media platforms to spread propaganda, whilst simultaneously implementing internet shutdowns to suppress the opinions of the people that differ from their own. At the same time, communities that are not considered “tech savvy” like farmers, have heavily relied on the use of social media to organize and intensify their protest movements. For example,  Indian Sikh farmers from Punjab and Haryana used social media platforms and the help of the Sikh diaspora across the world to fuel their “Dilli Chalo” (Let’s go to Delhi) movement when the Indian Parliament in Delhi passed three bills affecting farmers. The protestors were successful in engaging the global diaspora, even those who normally do not engage in political matters, and were also able to counter the state media narrative. 

While some governments use social media to shape public opinion and promote certain ideas, others can take a more extreme approach - shutting it down entirely. In June 2024, many of us saw massive student-led protests in Bangladesh that were organized mainly through social media platforms and other online spaces. Students came together to mobilize against the government's controversial policies about education and employment quotas. What started as relatively small protests at university campuses quickly attracted international attention through social media. As the protests intensified, the Bangladeshi government responded by trying to stop communication between protestors by blocking access to social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook in an effort to slow down or disrupt already planned protests. Despite this, protestors continued to use messaging apps that were encrypted like Signal, or Virtual Private Network's (VPN's) to bypass these restrictions and continue their protests. The Bangladeshi government's efforts to suppress protestors raised concerns about the balance between national security and the right to freedom of expression, as is the case with many other examples noted previously. 

Many countries struggle to completely control social media platforms. China has taken it a step further by establishing almost total control over its digital landscape, leaving little room for difference of opinion or freedom of speech online. An expansive and vast system of surveillance including "The Great Firewall", a system that blocks foreign social media platforms has been installed. Domestic Chinese platforms such as WeChat and Weibo are also heavily monitored for any criticism of the government. Since the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989, China has maintained strict control to prevent any chance of political opposition.  In spite of that, the Chinese public, when forced, has resorted to digital platforms to show their discontent and to organize for a cause. A case in point is protests against lockdowns during the Covid-19 pandemic in the city of Xi’An, which affected its 13 million residents. The zero-covid lockdown policy prevented an 8 year old boy suffering from Leukaemia and a pregnant lady from accessing medical care, and Xi’Anese people resorted to social media to express their frustration and grievances against the government.  

One of the most prevalent challenges with digital activism today is the blurred line between truth and lie. Misinformation and disinformation are rampant across social media platforms with  little regulation by the companies that run them. Major platforms like Meta (Facebook and Instagram), Google (YouTube), X (formerly Twitter) and TikTok have failed to effectively address the spread of false or misleading content time and time again. This lack of control means that social media can be a tool for spreading false narratives as much as it is for digital activism and this issue can be connected to all of the examples of protest movements that have adapted to the digital age mentioned above. Recently, the Pakistani Government, frustrated by a continued deluge of false propaganda and organized protests against the state and Pakistan Army by social media activists of the opposition, has broadened the scope of an earlier legislation called the PECA Act with the intention to control and suppress anti-government media. This has raised alarm bells among journalistic communities as the legislation may be used to curb fair criticism of the government as well. 

Because there are almost no standards when it comes to the accuracy of information, people can easily be misled or manipulated. False information, whether in the form of rumors, exaggerations, or blatant lies, has the power to influence public opinion and even cause real-life events. For example, during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests in the U.S., misinformation about violence and protests was widely circulated on social media which led to fear and alarm among black community. Similarly, during protests in Hong Kong in 2019, misinformation and disinformation were used by both pro-democracy activists and the Chinese government to spread fabricated stories about the protest's goals and actions. These are prime examples of one of the biggest risks of digital activism: when the spread of false information overshadows the original goals of a protest.

In conclusion, digital activism has forced protest movements to adapt to the digital age and allowed us to view, comment, and express our opinion about issues around the world, from the #MahsaAmini protests in Iran to the student-led movement in Bangladesh. Governments have responded with censorship, surveillance, and even completely stopping internet access, while misinformation and disinformation have blurred the line between truth and falsehood. Despite these challenges, online platforms have proven to be invaluable tools and have completely changed the way we protest today. 

While digital activism is a great complement to traditional forms of protest, a balance between online and on-the-ground action is needed to bring about real change. In the end, protesting in the digital age is a dynamic and ever changing process, shaped not only by the tools available to us but also by the power structures that seek to control them.

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